Control of Gene Expression By Regulation

 Gene expression is a technique through which genetic instruction are used for synthesizing gene products. This technique enables scientists and researchers to reach at the molecular level of each gene. Proteins are generally synthesized with the help of gene expression which further perform the function of components such as proteins, enzymes as well as receptors. Process of gene expression involves of two stages, transcription and translation. The techniques used for monitoring the gene expression levels include, northern blot analysis, RNA protection assay, and microarrays among others.

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Control of gene expression is essential to all organisms. In bacteria, it allows the cell to take advantage of changing environmental conditions. In multicellular organisms, it is critical for directing development and maintaining homeostasis. Gene regulation can occur at three possible places in the production of an active gene product. First, the transcription of the gene can be regulated. This is known as transcriptional regulation. When the gene is transcribed and how much it is transcribed influences the amount of gene product that is made. Second, if the gene encodes a protein, it can be regulated at the translational level. This is known as translational regulation. How often the mRNA is translated influences the amount of gene product that is made. Third, gene products can be regulated after they are completely synthesized by either post-transcriptional or post-translational regulation mechanisms. Both RNA and protein can be regulated by degradation to control how much active gene product is present.

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A Brief Review of Brain Monitoring Technology: Current Status and Future Directions

Brain monitoring devices are used to monitor brain activities of the patients during their conscious and unconscious conditions. Some of the monitors are used to measure the oxygen level and provides accurate, consistent measurements of oxygen in tissue.

Brain monitoring is important in critical clinical scenarios where the extent or evolution of neurologic injury is unknown. Common situations include the comatose state after cardiac arrest, poor grade aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH), and severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) et al. The extent of neurologic injury and injury progression are crucial in determining prognosis and guiding intensive care strategies to ameliorate the neurologic injury.

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Brain injury occurs either at the time of a direct insult or subsequently due to changes in the physical and biochemical environment. The ability to measure these changes reliably is of paramount importance in order to tailor the treatment to each individual patient and therefore prevent the onset of secondary brain injury.

Multimodal brain monitoring can be grouped into three categories:

(1)direct signals which are monitored invasively (e.g., intracranial pressure (ICP), tissue oxygenation, microdialysis, parenchymal blood flow, etc.);

(2)variables which may be monitored noninvasively (e.g., transcranial Doppler (TCD) or near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS));

(3)variables describing brain pathophysiology which are not monitored directly but are calculated at the bedside by dedicated computer software. The simplest example is the cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), which is the difference between the mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) and the ICP , and therefore it is a calculated variable. More sophisticated examples include various indices of vascular reactivity or cerebral autoregulation, brain compensatory reserve, vascular resistances, and brain compartmental compliances.

Optogenetics—Possible Future Monitoring Tool?

Optogenetics is an interesting area of research relatively in its infancy but may have potential clinical applications in brain monitoring. In its simplest permutation, optogenetics involves optically recording changes in membrane potential. Regarding the central nervous system, changes in membrane potential is how action potentials spread down an axon, across a synapse, and activate second order neurons. The ability to see neuronal signal transmission in action implicates that functional circuitry can be characterized. The functional assessment possible through optogenetics is an advantage over current brain monitoring techniques.

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Human Genetics : Basic Concepts & Application

Human genetics includes study of the inheritance in humans. Human genetics is broad sector which include various sub-sectors such as cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemistry, linical genetics, and genetic counseling and others. These sectors helps in understanding the concepts of gene structure and organization, expression of gene, detection of mutation and its analysis, linkage analysis and genetic mapping, and physical mapping among others. The study of human genetics allows to understand genetically of complexes in a diseases and epistatic interactions such as ethical, legal and social issues.

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• The genetic information of an individual is contained in 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Every human cell contains the 23 pair of chromosomes.

• One pair is called sex chromosomes

 Male: XY

 Female: XX

• Other 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes are called autosomes.

• The autosome chromosome pairs are called homologous pair. Two chromosomes in the same pair are called homologous chromosomes. 

Human Genome

• The totality of DNA characteristic of all the 23 pairs of chromosomes.

⎯ The human genome has about 3x109 bps in length.

⎯ 97% of the human genome is non-coding regions called introns. 3% is responsible for controlling the human genetic behavior. The coding region is called extron.

⎯ There are totally about 40,000 genes, over 5000 have been identified. There are much more left

⎯ Human Genome Project is to identified the DNA sequence (every bp) of human genome ( only a few individuals)

⎯ For human being, most of the place in human genome are the same. Only a very small part is different among different individuals. 

Practical Application of Human Genetics Recognizing that the goal of most introductory science courses is to better inform future voters and consumers, the author provides practical application of the content to students’ lives. Topics of particular interest to students include:

■ The role that genes play in disease susceptibility, physical characteristics, body weight, and behaviors, with an eye toward the dangers of genetic determinism

■ Biotechnologies, including genetic testing, gene therapy, stem cell therapy, gene expression profiling, genomewide association studies, and personalized medicine

■ Ethical concerns that arise from the interface of genetic information and privacy, such as inf such as infidelity testing, ancestry testing, and direct-to-consumer genetic testing 

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Exercises to Help Improve Brain Health | Strengthen Your Mind and Thrive

Things you can do to help maintain your brain health

Brain fitness is having brain-based emotional, cognitive, and self-regulation capacities needed to succeed in one's environment. Brain fitness refers to different techniques and strategies such as cognitive training to keep the brain 'in shape' by being engaged in mental exercises that target and engage the senses, memory, and attention. For all ages, as well as for people suffering from ADHD, learning disorders, memory loss, and even brain injury, keeping the brain' fit' is recognised as helpful and important.

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Neuroscience is discovering new, effective ways to develop our brains for enhanced mental strength and performance. What we are learning about neuroplasticity means that, at any age, through training, we can change our brains to become even more mentally strong, healthy, and fit. Much as we need specific physical exercises and movement to build bodily strength, agility, and resilience; we can also benefit from exercises — or practices — to strengthen our minds, mental performance, and well-being. We can tap this immense potential to experience greater courage, confidence, composure, clarity, and creativity, the 5 Cs of mental strength we need to cultivate happier, healthier, and more rewarding lives.

Brain fitness has quickly become a mainstream aspiration among baby boomers and elders, primarily in North America. It has fueled a growing interest in brain fitness classes, brain fitness centers, and brain fitness programs, along with attendant opportunities and challenges. An increasing number of adults want useful tools to protect cognitive health and performance—not necessarily to reverse aging—and what they are finding is an expanding and noisy marketplace where they (and also professionals) need to carefully evaluate their own needs and the available options. The recent discovery that experience can change brain structure and function at any age has inspired a range of health, education, and productivity applications whose value and limitations we are only starting to grasp. If you can envision the array of equipment available to train different muscles in a typical modern health club, you can anticipate the value—and perhaps the limitations—of having an expanding toolkit to measure and enhance cognition and mental wellness. The burgeoning brain fitness industry needs to define and refine itself, to mature, before it can be as established as today’s physical fitness industry.

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