Building Your Digital DNA - Trend Of Digital Transformation (Digital Genome)

Digital genome is a complete digital set of genetic material that present in an organism or a cell. Digital genome technology deals with genes and their functions to find the causes behind the chronic diseases and also to fix them. The technology is associated with the advancements that help to make healthcare more personal and more effective for the treatment. Moreover, the digital genome is an easier way of gathering  information about the chronic disease. The technology is used by the professionals to get a closer look of genetic composed diseases, such as cancer. Digital genome acts as a supporter that enables instant access to trait combinations to solve apparently endless custom queries.

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New genome engineering technologies, like CRISPR-Cas9, are revolutionising how we think about genetics. The ability to make targeted changes to a living cell’s genome has huge implications in fields like precision health, agriculture and biosecurity.

But genomes are big, and everyone's is different. How do you design a tailored approach for a specific genome? How do you know where to target amongst the billion bases in a human genome?

As digital information continues to accumulate, higher density and longer-term storage solutions are necessary. DNA has many potential advantages as a medium for immutable, high latency information storage needs. For example, DNA storage is very dense. At theoretical maximum, DNA can encode two bits per nucleotide (nt) or 455 exabytes per gram of ssDNA. Unlike most digital storage media, DNA storage is not restricted to a planar layer, and is often readable despite degradation in non-ideal conditions over millennia. Finally, DNA’s essential biological role provides access to natural reading and writing enzymes and ensures that DNA will remain a readable standard for the foreseeable future. 

Genome editing is a powerful new tool for making precise alterations to an organism’s genetic material. Recent scientific advances have made genome editing more efficient, precise, and flexible than ever before. These advances have spurred an explosion of interest from around the globe in the possible ways in which genome editing can improve human health. The speed at which these technologies are being developed and applied has led many policymakers and stakeholders to express concern about whether appropriate systems are in place to govern these technologies and how and when the public should be engaged in these decisions.

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CRISPR Technology- Latest Advances and Upcoming Prospects for Genome Editing

CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) technology is a simple but powerful tool for genome editing. This tool enables life science researchers to easily edit DNA sequences and modify gene function. It has many potential applications include correcting genetic defects, treating and preventing the spread of diseases and improving crops. By delivering the CRISPR enzyme Cas9 nuclease coupled with synthetic guide RNA (gRNA) into a cell, the cell's genome can be cut at a desired location, that allows existing genes to be removed or add new ones.

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Increasing usage of CRISPR systems in microbiology, growing government and private investments on research and development of genome editing, rising prevalence of genetic disorders, and increases application of CRISPR/Cas9 technology to improve crop production drives the global CRISPR technology market. However, ethical issues associated with CRISPR and lack of skilled personnel restrain the global CRISPR technology market over the forecast period.

CRISPR is igniting a revolution. A relatively recent discovery in the timeline of biotechnology, CRISPR is quickly becoming a standard and flexible laboratory tool, and it is well on its way to permeating a large variety of applications. Researchers are deploying CRISPR across a wide range of life science disciplines, from agriculture and medicine to biofuels and industrial fermentation.

Genome editing (also called gene editing) is a group of technologies that give scientists the ability to change an organism's DNA. These technologies allow genetic material to be added, removed, or altered at particular locations in the genome. Several approaches to genome editing have been developed. A recent one is known as CRISPR-Cas9, which is short for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9. The CRISPR-Cas9 system has generated a lot of excitement in the scientific community because it is faster, cheaper, more accurate, and more efficient than other existing genome editing methods.

CRISPR-Cas9 was adapted from a naturally occurring genome editing system in bacteria. The bacteria capture snippets of DNA from invading viruses and use them to create DNA segments known as CRISPR arrays. The CRISPR arrays allow the bacteria to "remember" the viruses (or closely related ones). If the viruses attack again, the bacteria produce RNA segments from the CRISPR arrays to target the viruses' DNA. The bacteria then use Cas9 or a similar enzyme to cut the DNA apart, which disables the virus.

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New Techniques in Digital Radiology : Improves Image Quality & Many More

Advances in digital technology allowed the development of full digital X-ray detectors that are currently available for projection radiology. Digital radiography is a method of radiography that uses x-ray-sensitive plates to capture data during the patient examination directly and immediately transferring it to a computer system without the use of a standard cassette. The computed radiography process is to use a phosphor imaging plate to create a digital image. CR uses a cassette-based system like analog film. The DR technology transfer automatically the images to a computer.

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Digital radiography is a method of radiography that uses x-ray-sensitive plates to capture data during the patient examination directly and immediately transferring it to a computer system without the use of a standard cassette. The computed radiography process is to use a phosphor imaging plate to create a digital image. CR uses a cassette-based system like analog film. The DR technology transfer automatically the images to a computer. Digital radiography has revolutionized and streamlined endodontic diagnosis and treatment. There are several advantages of digital x-ray imaging over analog film imaging that can benefit the clinician: reduced time, reduced radiation, ability to take multiple exposures without repositioning the sensor, storage and maintenance of the images, and electronic transmission of images. Digital radiography presents numerous advantages: a big dynamics bounded to an mostly linear response; an interactive parameter setting the examinations devices; aquasi-immediate availability of the image; operations of post-treatment on the images in order to improve their quality; the availability and the sharing of the images on local or distant stations. Today, the greater needs in flexibility and "real time", as well for the acquisition of the images as for the communications, the sharing of information, the processing and the computing exploitation of the big data bases of images, as well as the more and more frequent exploitation of the temporal dimension (movies-radiography) make the use of one of these new systems of digital radiography almost indispensable. The emergence of these technologies was allowed by progress of electronics and computing science and needs in instrumentation evolved at the same time as the increase of the performances of the computing simulation tools. The either optoelectronics or semiconductor new sensors achieve performances which can on certain points exceed those of the film systems: • high power of ruling allowing a high threshold of detection, • noise only limited by the statistics of detected photons X, • dynamics above 1000, • linearity on all the range of signal, • speed of evacuation of the data • frame rate…

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Recent Developments of Reporter Gene Assays - Methods and Protocols (with Appilications)

Reporter Genes are genes whose products can be readily assayed consecutive to transfection and can be used as markers for screening successfully transfected cells, for studying regulation of gene expression, or serve as controls for standardizing transfection efficiencies.

Gene reporter systems play a key role in gene expression and regulation studies. This review describes the ideal reporter systems, including reporter expression vector design. It summarizes the many uses of genetic reporters and outlines the currently available and commonly used reporter systems. Each system is described in terms of the reporter gene, the protein it encodes, and the assays available for detecting presence of the reporter. In addition, each reporter system is analyzed in terms of its recommended uses, advantages, and limitations.

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A gene consists of two main functional elements: The first consists of a so-called coding DNA sequence that provides information about the protein produced. Second, a specific promoter sequence linked to the coding region that regulates the transcription of the gene. The promoter serves to activate or suppress the expression of the gene as required.

The main purpose of the reporter gene assay is to investigate the promoter of a gene of interest, i.e. the regulation of its expression. This can be done by linking the promoter of interest to an easily detectable gene, such as the gene for firefly luciferase, which catalyses a reaction that produces light. 

Usually, the cells are then exposed to different factors or conditions, or changes can be made in the order of the reporter, the effect of which can be easily tracked by measuring changes in light emission.

EXAMPLES OF REPORTER GENES

Common reporter genes are β-galactosidase, β-glucuronidase and luciferase. Various detection methods (see below) are used to measure expressed reporter gene protein. These include luminescence, absorbance and fluorescence.

Assays based on luminescence are very popular for several reasons:

• they have a high sensitivity (between 10 and 10,000 times higher than methods based on absorption or fluorescence, depending on the specific assay and reporter used)
• most cell types do not have endogenous luciferase activity
• luminescence assays have a large dynamic range
• they are quick to perform
• their costs are relatively low 

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Benefits & Importance of Wireless Brain Sensors : The Human Machine Interface that Control Your Thinking

Over the past several decades, the use of electronics in a wearable form to monitor body signals and the surrounding environment has led to major developments in healthcare and environmental sensors. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), brain injury is the main source of death and inability around the world. It is evaluated that roughly 10 million individuals will be influenced by traumatic brain injury (TBI) by 2020.

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Wireless implantable sensors brings the promising prospects for the treatment of intracranial diseases. To achieve the transcranial wireless links for data transmission between the implanted sensor and the off-body receiver, different approaches have been proposed in the literature.In this summary paper, we will introduce and briefly analyze the state of the art and then introduce two implantable battery-free systems for brain care application from our current research. Wireless brain sensors are detects the intracranial pressure, monitor the brain temperature and record brain signaling through the form of brain waves. Wireless brain sensors are mostly used for patients with conditions such as sleep disorders, Parkinson's disease, traumatic brain injury, dementia and other brain related conditions. These sensors assists in monitoring the neurological fluctuations and help to improve cognitive functionalities. These sensors operates wirelessly, and can be easily accessible through wireless connectivity with the help of smart phone, tablets or computers and making the device more cost-efficient.

Wireless brain sensors are devices that help monitoring the temperature, detecting the intracranial pressure, and record brain signaling in the form of brain waves. The essential aim of this wireless brain sensor is of securing the person from emergency situations. The devices are primarily used for patients experiencing conditions such as sleep disorders, traumatic brain injury, dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and other neurological conditions. These devices aid in observing and monitoring the neurological deviations and provide support for improving the cognitive functionalities. Accessibility of these sensors is easy from a remote area through wireless connectivity and be integrated with smart phones, tablets and computers, consequently be monitored intermittently from a homecare environment, making the device more cost-efficient.

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Genomics and Proteomics : Concepts and Perspectives, Applications

Proteomics is the study of the complete protein complement of a cell, tissue, or organism under a precise, defined set of conditions. It is depended on technological and instrumental developments. These developments comprised of advances in mass spectrometry (MS) technology, protein fractionation techniques, bioinformatics, etc. Proteomics depend on three basic technological bases that include a method to fractionate compound protein or peptide mixtures, MS to acquire the data necessary to classify individual proteins and bioinformatics to analyze and assemble the MS data.

The word “proteome” represents the complete protein pool of an organism encoded by the genome. In broader term, Proteomics, is defined as the total protein content of a cell or that of an organism. Proteomics helps in understanding of alteration in protein expression during different stages of life cycle or under stress condition. Likewise, Proteomics helps in understanding the structure and function of different proteins as well as protein-protein interactions of an organism.

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Types of Proteomics

Expression proteomics: The quantitative study of protein expression between samples thatdiffer by some variable is known as expression proteomics. Using this approach, protein expression of the entire proteome or of subproteomes between samples can be compared. This could be useful in identification of disease specific proteins.

Structural proteomics: Unlike comparing the same cell or tissue in normal and diseased state inexpression proteomics, structural proteomics are directed to map out the structure and nature of protein complexes present specifically in a particular cellular organelle. The aim is to identify all proteins present in a complex and to characterize all protein-protein interactions occurring between these proteins.

Functional proteomics: Functional proteomics is a very broad term for many specific, directedproteomics approaches. It can be defined as the use of proteomics methods to analyze the properties of molecular networks involved in a living cell. One of the major objectives is to identify molecules that participate in these networks.

Genes and Proteins

Number of genes vs Number of proteins

Analysis of mRNA does not provide a direct reflection of the protein content in the cell. One reason is that mRNA and protein expression levels do not always correlate. mRNA could undergo various post-transcriptional modifications like, polyadenylation and mRNA editing. Some of these modifications could lead to the generation of various protein forms from a single gene. Subsequently, translational regulation of mRNA could take place. Proteins, after synthesis, could undergo post-translational modifications. It is estimated that proteins could undergo as many as 200 different types of these modifications.

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Gene Expression and Regulation

Gene expression is a technique through which genetic instruction are used for synthesizing gene products. This technique enables scientists and researchers to reach at the molecular level of each gene. Proteins are generally synthesized with the help of gene expression which further perform the function of components such as proteins, enzymes as well as receptors. Process of gene expression involves of two stages, transcription and translation. The techniques used for monitoring the gene expression levels include, northern blot analysis, RNA protection assay, and microarrays among others.

The decreasing cost of sequencing techniques and availability of gene expression databases are expected to fuel the growth of market in the coming years. Increase in the development of biotechnology sector in various developing economies coupled with the funding offered by the government bodies are anticipated to offer growth opportunities in the market during the forecast period.

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What is Gene Expression?

Gene expression is the process in which DNA directs the synthesis of functional products, such as proteins. Cells can regulate gene expression at various stages. It allows organisms to generate different cell types and enables cells to adapt to internal and external factors.

• Gene expression is a tightly regulated process that allows a cell to respond to its changing environment.
• It acts as both an on/off switch to control when proteins are made and also a volume control that increases or decreases the amount of proteins made.
• There are two key steps involved in making a protein, transcription and translation.

Genetic Information Flows from DNA to RNA to Protein

A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is made up of nucleotides and proteins consist of amino acids, a mediator is required to convert the information that is encoded in DNA into proteins. This mediator is the messenger RNA (mRNA). mRNA copies the blueprint from DNA by a process called transcription. In eukaryotes, transcription takes place in the nucleus by complementary base-pairing with the DNA template. The mRNA is then processed and transported into the cytoplasm where it serves as a template for protein synthesis during translation. In prokaryotes, which lack a nucleus, the processes of transcription and translation occur at the same location and almost simultaneously since the newly-formed mRNA is susceptible to rapid degradation.

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Role of Epigenetics in Biology - Advancing Diagnostics and Accelerating Precision Medicine

 Epigenetics is a study of change in gene expression in a phenotype without changing the genotype. Epigenetics drugs and diagnostics are used while screening early stage cancer and other abnormal changes in skin cells, liver cells, brain cells and others.

There are pronounced interindividual variations in drug metabolism, drug responses, and the incidence of adverse drug reactions. To a certain extent such variability can be explained by genetic factors, but epigenetic modifications, which are relatively scarcely described so far, also contribute. It is known that a novel class of drugs termed epidrugs intervene in the epigenetic control of gene expression, and many of these are now in clinical trials for disease treatment. In addition, disease prognosis and drug treatment success can be monitored using epigenetic biomarkers. Here we review these novel aspects in pharmacology and address intriguing future opportunities for gene-specific epigenetic editing. 

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Epigenetic mechanisms can influence the gene activity at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels and/or at the translation level and post-translational modifications. Such epigenetic mechanisms with a potentially vast spectrum of consequences could result in more varieties of cell differentiations, morphogenesis, variability, and adaptability of an organism, which can be affected by both genetic and environmental factors. Therefore, the field of epigenetics covers the modifications of DNA, DNA-binding proteins, and histones, which are important in making changes in chromatin structure without any change in the nucleotide sequence of a given DNA. Also, some of these alterations could be transferred between generations. The advent of the epigenomic tools over the past few years has brought forth a more holistic view of the interplay between the genome and a very active epigenome, forming an causal link between the underlying genome, the regulatory epigenome, and the functional consequences stemming from perturbations in both. Importantly, these tools are being leveraged to uncover mechanisms of complex diseases. Such integrative approaches may provide insights into the causal regulatory mechanisms of disease for purposes of early-stage detection as well as therapeutic development.

The exciting and rapidly evolving area of epigenetics is advancing the possibilities for medicine well beyond the realms of the genome, bringing a new generation of diagnostic and therapeutic innovations that offer hope for many patients living with life-threatening diseases.

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